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by Dr. Hans Wolfgang Schumann
Inter-confessional discussions have become fashionable, and they always end with the discovery that all religions want peace and that there is no reason for their followers to be feuding. Tolerance is easy when the ethics of different religions are compared, but difficult when their central teachings are brought up. It is, however, in this moment that tolerance should be most present. The following text could serve as a basis for discussion.
A Short Introduction to the Buddhist Teachings
We commonly speak of the 'teachings' of Buddha - but this term is not completely accurate. 'Teachings' sounds rather contrived, like an invented school of thought, but this is exactly what the lesson (Dharma) of the Buddha is not. It is the recognition and explanation of a natural mechanics that happened to be discovered. Just as Isaac Newton did not invent gravity but discovered it and made it calculable, so the Buddha explained and harnessed the idea of reincarnation. It was not the origins of the world or any manner of theology which occupied his thought, but the physical forces of existence with which beings are constantly confronted.
The teachings of Buddha are divided into four truths.
- The starting point of his teaching is the question of whether there is a form of existence which is free from suffering (Duhkha). The Buddha says that there is not. He does not deny the existence of sporadic happiness and joyous situations, but each happiness, each joy is episodically short and will soon be overwhelmed again by the day-to-day worries of our existence such as aging and death, the pain of loss, the presence of the unwelcome, parting from a beloved, unrequited love and the fragility of the body. In the balance between suffering and joy, suffering weighs heavier.
- So why does nearly everybody wish for a longer or a new existence?
There are three impulses, according to Buddha, which affect reincarnation and continued suffering: greed (for being and having), hate (= greed for destruction) and ignorance (= ignorance of the causes of suffering). Those who do not know know that suffering is created by their own doing and thinking give free rein to greed and hate. The idea of rebirth, the assumption that every unredeemed creature will take on a new existence after its death, is foreign to the western world and is not scientifically provable. But it explains so many aspects of our existence that it is at least viable as a working hypothesis. There are, according to the Buddha, five realms of existence into which we can be reborn: the realm of the Gods, the realm of humans, the realm of spirits, the realm of animals and the realm of torment. We do not remain in any of these realms of existence forever, because everything which has a beginning also at some time finds an end. Even the Gods are subject to the cycle of reincarnation (Samsara) and must some day relinquish their relatively comfortable form of existence for a more modest one. In Buddhism they only appear as marginal figures as they cannot offer healers any aid with redemption. Every seeker of redemption acts for himself alone. Luckily, reincarnation does not happen randomly, rather it is guided by the law of ethical causality. Doing good (Karmari), e.g. actions resulting from good motives, lead upwards in the cycle of reincarnation towards more pleasant forms of existence. Bad actions or thoughts drag us downwards towards a miserable life. Good actions are healing, bad ones are damaging. Our present form of existence is the product of our actions in the past, and our actions and thoughts now will determine our future existence and surroundings. There is no need of an almighty judge to ensure that everybody receives what he deserves, and there can be no injustices.
- As greed, hate and ignorance are the impulses which lead to a new life, unavoidably filled with more suffering, it is inferred that in order to reach redemption, these impulses should be defeated. This is a task which requires constant self-discipline. Self destruction is not a means of redemption, as it is formed upon the basis of greed for 'non-existence', and this, like every kind of greed, leads to reincarnation.
- In his fourth truth, Buddha teaches how to vanquish greed, hate and ignorance. This is the Eightfold Path:
- right thinking
- the right attitude
- the right speech
- the right behavior
- the right manner of living
- the right endeavor
- the right mindfulness
- the right meditation.
Alongside these positively formulated instructions, there are five rules of abstinence for lay confessors: do not kill, do not steal, avoid unchaste acts, do not lie, do intoxicate oneself. Aside from the threat of worldly punishments, transgressions of these rules always cause karmic self-damage in the form of a lower reincarnation. Most people will need many rebirths to overcome all obstacles on the road to redemption.
What does Buddhist redemption look like?
It is reached through the removal of greed, hate and ignorance and is identified as the extinguishing of life (Nirvana). There are two phases. In Nirvana during life, the extinguished can live free from the force of reincarnation; in Nirvana after death (Parinirvana) his physical being is removed. Parinirvana cannot be determined as being or not being. It is a condition beyond all description, a situation which words fail.
Often, the teachings of the Buddha are construed too plainly, as though they simply aimed towards higher reincarnation or even wellness in the here and now instead of ultimate redemption. However, they are so much more than this - they represent a profound world awareness.
Nowhere in the world, according to the Buddha, can there be a permanent existence - everything is in flux. Creatures are no exception to this - they do not possess a permanent core, nor an eternal soul (Atman), but their existence is that of Becoming. The constant experience of becoming something different is that which we call life. Beyond death there remains nothing lasting of any empirical person comprised of five transient elements (Skandha). Contrary to common Indian beliefs about the soul, Buddha established an An-atma-teaching, a teaching 'not of the soul'. The letter a- (combined with the conjoining consonant -n- here) in Sanskrit and Pali negates the following notion or turns it into its opposite. Buddhism also uses the word Sunya (Empty) with the same meaning as the adjective An-atma (Soulless).
The non-existence of an eternal soul, so Buddha continues, the 'emptiness' of the person, is a blessing for us, as an immortal soul would be, because of its eternity, beyond redemption and subject to never-ending suffering. The belief in an indestructible Atman is a fool's teaching (Baladharma). It is exactly this non-existence of a permanent soul which makes the extinguishing of life (Nirvana) towards freedom from suffering possible.
As can be expected, the An-atma teachings of Buddha met with widespread misunderstanding and opposition. The idea that an immortal soul which would last beyond the death of its bearer and continue to transform into a new existence was too beloved and consoling to many people for them to give it up. That a teacher such as the Buddha could both acknowledge the existence of reincarnation and at the same time challenge the existence of a soul that outlasts death (Atman), seemed paradoxical and ridiculous to everybody who heard it for the first time.
According to the Buddha, how was reincarnation fulfilled without a transcendent soul?
The different states of existence within the cycle of death and rebirth are accounted for by causality or conditionality: pre-existence determines post-existence. These types of existence are not completely identical, as they lack continued memory, but are rather like a closely related parent and a child. The primary creator of a cause (Karmari) and the receiver of the action's karmic consequences are neither the same nor different to each other. What in traditional Indian belief is taken to be the migration of the eternal Atman, is regarded in Buddhism as part of the process of causality. The Buddha's teachings are dynamic in their plurality and, since they limit themselves to the sphere of the immanent, they are not in contradiction with modern day science.
The Buddhist negation of the existence of an eternal soul, an Atman, does not amount to denying the 'I'. Everyone has an 'I', or a self, but this is little more than a label given to a psycho-physical person to allow one to talk about the self. Buddha also often spoke freely of himself using the I form. At the death of a living being he would stop speaking of 'I' and continue using abstract terms. The teaching of Anatma does not contradict the concept of the common 'I' that exists within a context of time, but rather the existence of an eternal Atman; an immortal soul.
Does cult exist in early Buddhism?
There is a custom of venerating Buddha using images of him by laying down flowers and lighting incense and, in addition, followers meditate on the content of Buddha's teachings, but divine worship and prayer do not feature as a part of this. Who should their prayers be directed to? The Buddhas of the past have reached absolution from existence, and are no longer available to be approached; they cannot fulfill wishes. The events of our lives are either processes of nature taking its course, such as birth and death, or are private decisions: matters like marriage and naming children. All these are treated with solemn contemplation, and do not require religious sanctification.
The sobriety of "The Teaching of the Elders" (Theravada), taught by the historical Buddha in the 6th/5th centuries (BCE), lead to the formation of a new Buddhist school in the 1st century (BCE), which was known as the "Greater Vehicle" (Mahayana) against a stream of suffering. It recognizes the teachings of the historical Buddha, but breaks through traditional limitations on thinking and immanence. It takes a more transcendental notion of existence, with regard to Buddhas unseen by normal people, of which there are two, each reigning over an exalted kingdom, one Eastern, and the other Western, in which people can be reborn, free from hindrances that stop them destroying the causes of suffering: greed, hate, and ignorance. Those who reach this realm are granted Nirvana and enlightenment.
Another important aspect of Mahayana Buddhism is the role played by Bodhisattvas. These are beings whose inner perfection defies natural laws and prepares them for the blissful state of non-being (Nirvana). They remain in the world out of free will in order to help the suffering beings attain enlightenment. They can be called on for help.
Theravada Buddhism, which originated in India, is now practiced in Sri Lanka (formerly known as Ceylon) and South East Asia (Myanmar, Thailand, Laos and Cambodia), while Mahayana Buddhism has its home in Tibet, Bhutan, China, Mongolia, Korea and Japan. All of Asia's Buddhist schools also have followers in the USA and Europe.
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